Post Modenisim-Colonialisim-Structuralisim - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 20 Words: 6070 Downloads: 5 Date added: 2017/09/15 Category Advertising Essay Did you like this example? AOBAKWE RAMOSU AND MARANG DUBE| 6/5/2010| POST MODERNISM/COLONIALISM/ STRUCTURALISM| This paper is going to focus on the post modernism, post colonialism and post structural theory. It is going to asses each theory separately and tries to reveal similarities between these theories in terms of their explanatory purposes they serve. In assessing each theory it will explicitly define it, give local interpretation, look at its origins (history), its proponents, relevance to the social work profession, the explanatory function, and change function and so on. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Post Modenisim-Colonialisim-Structuralisim" essay for you Create order POSTMODERNISM THEORY Postmodernism is a trend in modern culture characterized by the rejection of objective truth and global cultural native (Payne, 2005). * It can also be defined as changes in which we think about our societies and the way in which we create and understand knowledge (Hollinger, 1994). * With reference to (Macionis Plummer, 2005) this is ways of thinking which stresses plurality of perspectives as oppose to the unified single truth. * According to our understanding postmodernism means that there are multiple truths/ perspectives in the world, and no single truth can stand that is truth is subjective. In a nutshell postmodernism suggests that there is an alternative way of thinking about knowledge and understanding. These ideas rose partly as a reaction to modernist thinking: this is why they are called â€Å"postmodern†. It pursuits that, knowledge is always socially constructed because the choice of which knowledge is developed is not neutral. For example a scientist chooses to observe or experiment with particular aspects of the real world out of personal choice and because society at the time is interested in that particular area of knowledge (Payne, 2005). LOCAL INTERPRETATION Postmodernism go tewa gore mongwe le mongwe o na le tsela e a labang dilo ka teng, ga gona nnete e ngwafela e. g. beauty is in the eyes of the beholder. E bile nnete e a iterelwa go sa reye gore ya yo mongwe e botlhokwa kgotsa e kwa godimo ga ya motho o mongwe. Postmodernism e ne e leka go kgala modernism e e neng e kaya fa nnete e le nngwe. HISTORY/ ORIGINS OF POSTMODERNISM Postmodernism underwent a few stages so that it could evolve. Form the Pre-modern, to modernism and lastly post modernism was born. Its history is as follows: PRE-MODERN ERA In pre-modern societies, most people lived within the context of a single coherent cultural package. Pre-modern societies were not necessarily simple or primitive, but people in them were relatively free from â€Å"culture shock†, this is the experience of coming into contact with other people with entirely different values and beliefs. There was limited contact and interaction between societies. And the truth was in the realm of the societies they existed in. To them there was only a single perspective in the world. An example of pre-modern era was when the Batswana believed in Badimo, way before the colonialism era began. There was a transformation to modern society which began approximately in the 17th century. Factors contributing to modernization included the reformation, the revival, and the rise of the modern. European states, the scientific revolution, French industrial revolution and the rise of mass urban societies. The transformation was due to a series of culture shocks, that is another step taken each time somebody made the unsettling discovery that the same world could contain multiple views. MODERNISM People got exposed to various cultures and there was high interaction and contact between different societies. As there was now various ways of looking at things, philosophers tried to bring them together and construct one truth or explanation. When people discovered that the same world could contain multiple world views, conquerors frequently tried to kill off the wrong thinkers. Missionaries tried to persuade or force them to convert to the correct view of reality. Philosophers tried to create systems of understanding so profound, that they might be offered to the world as more than just another culturally based set of beliefs. The modern era has been a time of battles between religion and science, between political ideologies. And although each of these had its own inventory of essential truths, none has been able to gain universal agreement that those truths were all that true. It doesn’t look like all were to become Christians hence postmodernism was born. An example of the modernism era would be the time when the colonialism era began, the missionaries tried to get Batswana to convert Batswana to God and do away with their traditional initiation schools and introduce â€Å"formal† education. Although some persons were converted, others still adhered to their traditional beliefs (Anderson, 1995). POSTMODERNISM Its dominance begins early in the cold war and continues through to the present (21st century). People became familiar with it in the 1980s and 1990s. This is the age of over-exposure to otherness, where compound views in one world are allowed. For instance everyone is allowed to choose which religion to follow, and which God to worship. It is a departure from modernist approach that had previously been dominant. Postmodernism literally means after â€Å"modernism†. Every theory has people who coined it, but it doesn’t necessarily mean that they own the theory. The main proponents of the postmodernism theory are Jean Baudrillard, Jean-francois Lyotard, Jacques Derrida (1930 ), and Michel Foucault (1926- 1984). JEAN BAUDRILLARD He is also known as the â€Å"the high priest of postmodernism†. He is a sociologist who breaks down modernity and post modernity in an effort to explain the world as a set of models. He identifies early modernity as the period between renaissance and the industrial revolution, modernity as the period at the start of the industrial revolution and post modernity as a period of mass media (cinema photography). He states that we live in a world of images but images that are only simulations. He implies that many people still fail to understand this concept that we have now moved into a period where truth is entirely a product of consensus values and where science itself is just the name we attach to certain mode of explanation. JEAN-FRANCOIS LYOTARD (1984) He was born in 1929 and died in 1984. He attacks many of the modern age traditions, such as the â€Å"Grand† narrative or what he termed as the meta (master) narrative. In contrast to the ethnographies written by anthropologists in the 1st half 20th century, Lyotard states that in all encompassing account of culture cannot be accomplished. MICHEL FOUCAL Is a French philosopher who attended to show that what most people think of as the permanent truths of human nature and society actually changes throughout the course of history ( https://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Postmodernism). TENENTS OF POSTMODERNISM These are the bits and pieces that make up the theory. The tenets of postmodernism theory are social construction and relativism. With reference to ( Hollinger, 1994) they are as detailed below: SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION Berger, peter (1966) is the main pillar or father of the social construction of reality. It also contains reunification. Social construction argues that knowledge and understanding about the world come from social interactions among people. Knowledge is therefore constructed within cultural, historical and local context through the language used to interpret social experiences because it is the only way in which those experiences can be understood. People construct this knowledge from interaction then unconsciously distance themselves from it and this knowledge appears to be superhuman as if it was not made by people. Here the process is called reification. Reification is the apprehension of human phenomena as if they were things, that is, possibly superhuman terms. Reification is the apprehension of the products of human activity as if they were something else than human products—such as facts of nature, results of cosmic laws, or manifestations of divine will. Reification implies that man is capable of forgetting his own authorship of the human world, and further, that the dialectic between man, the producer, and his products is lost to consciousness. The reified world is, by definition, a dehumanized world. It is experienced by man as a strange facticity, an opus alienum over which he has no control rather than as the opul proprium of his own productive activity. As soon as an objective social world is established, the possibility of reification is never far away. The objectivity of the social world means that it confronts man as something outside of himself. The decisive question is whether he still retains the awareness that, however, objectivised, the social world was made by men and, therefore, can be remade by them. The basic â€Å"recipe† for reification of institutions is to bestow on them an ontological status independent of human activity and signification. RELATIVISM To understand knowledge you have to look at it from the perspective of the people who constructed it. For example for a mokgatla to understand why a Mongwato man thinks women with big buttocks are attractive he has to look at it from the Mongwato perspective. Some relativists claim that humans can understand and evaluate beliefs and behaviours only in terms of their historical or cultural context. There are many forms of relativism which vary in their degree of controversy. The term often refers to truth relativism, which is the doctrine that there are no absolute truths, i. e. , that truth is always relative to some particular frame of reference, such as a language or a culture. Another widespread and contentious form is moral relativism. One argument for relativism suggests that our own cognitive bias prevents us from observing something objectively with our own senses, and notational bias will apply to whatever we can allegedly measure without using our senses. In addition, we have a culture bias shared with other trusted observers which we cannot eliminate. A counterargument to this states that subjective certainty and concrete objects and causes form part of our everyday life, and that there is no great value in discarding such useful ideas as isomorphism, objectivity and a final truth. Relativism is sometimes (though not always) interpreted as saying that all points of view are equally valid, in contrast to an absolutism which argues there is but one true and correct view. In fact, relativism asserts that a particular instance Y exists only in combination with or as a by-product of a particular framework or viewpoint X, and that no framework or standpoint is uniquely privileged over all others. APPLICATION OF THEORY TO SOCIAL WORK Social construction has tremendous advantage for social workers for two main reasons. First, it emphasises that change is continuous and urges us to believe that we can achieve it through social interaction. Social work seeks to make personal and social changes through social interaction, so social construction ideas emphasise the possibility of effectiveness in social work. Also social workers often have the job of finding out about people’s personal and social histories to contribute to the work of other professions and official decision making process. Social construction ideas suggest why this is useful as a basis for understanding an action, because we cannot understand reality without understanding historical and social contexts. It also warns that how we use our knowledge in report writing may have a strong influence, for good, or bad, of the outcome ( Payne, 2005). RESEARH Uses detailed analysis of human interaction, particularly conversation analysis, relying on video and audio taped records of interactions. These are systematically analysed to reveal patterns of communication and behaviour that may be hidden. ASSESMENT We apply it in assessment, as social workers we usually have the work of finding out about people’s personal and social histories to contribute to the work of others and official decision making process. EXPLANATORY FUNCTION Postmodernism affirms that whatever we accept as truth and even the way we envision truths are dependent on the community in which we participate. There is no absolute truth, rather truth is relative to the community in which we participate. CHANGE FUNCTION It looks at things from the context of the environment that constructed that knowledge and reality. The truths are equal after all they are product of men. Change technique Getting people to realise that everyone is entitled to their own truth and no one’s truth is better of than the other’s truths. Relativism can be used in dysfunctional families. For exampling a case of a mother who neglects her children, the social worker might administer good intervention if he/she tries to see things from the mother’s perspective as a way of understanding as to why she does it. Accountability Theoretical framework to practice allows those outside of your practice to understand your actions. The postmodernism theory insists that there are multiple perspectives in the world, and everyone has their own way of doing things. Using relativism that is looking at things from other people’s perspectives to understand why they do certain things the way they do, can act as a mirror of social work to other professions. Justifications: This theory offers a rationale for a pattern of action. People behave in a certain way or see things in a certain way, or believe certain things because postmodernism implies that there are various views in one world, so people believes are justified. Predictions With postmodernism people hold different perspectives and multiple truths hence they react to situations in their own unique way CRITIQUES OF POSTMODERNISM THEORY Roy D’Andrade in the article â€Å"moral in anthropology†, critiques postmodernism definition of objectivity and subjectivity by examining the moral nature of their models. He argues that these morals are purely subjective. He also argues that there must be a separation between moral and objective models because they are counterproductive in discovering how the world works. Rosenav identifies seven contradictions in post modernism; 1. Its anti-theoretical position is essentially a theoretical stand 2. Postmodernism stresses the irrational, instrument of reason are freely employed to advance its perspective. 3. The postmodern prescription to focus on the marginal is itself an evaluative emphasis of precisely the sought that is their wise attacks. 4. Postmodernism stress intertextually but often treats texts in isolation. 5. By rejecting modern criteria for assessing theory, postmodernists cannot argue that there are no valid criteria for judgement. . Postmodernism criticises the inconsistency of modernism but refuses to be held to norms of consistency itself. 7. Postmodernist contradict themselves by relinquishing truth claims in their own writings. Melford Spiro: argues that postmodern anthropologists do not convincible dismiss the scientific method (https://www. as. ua. edu/ant/Faculty/murphy/436/pomo. htm). Postmodernism tends to revolve around the fo llowing things: a) The attainment of universal truth is impossible b) No ideas or truths are transcendent c) All ideas are culturally or socially constructed ) Historical facts are unimportant and irrelevant e) Ideas are true only if they benefit the oppressed. POST COLONIALISM DEFINITIONS Post-colonialism (postcolonial theory, post-colonial theory) is a specifically post-modern intellectual discourse that consists of reactions to, and analysis of, the cultural legacy of colonialism. Post colonialism comprises a set of theories found amongst philosophy, film, political science, human geography, sociology, and literature. Post colonialism refers also to the social, political, economic, and cultural practices which arise in response and resistance to colonialism. Literally, Post colonialism refers to the period following the decline of colonialism. Post colonialism more narrowly and historically defined, is usually understood to refer to those countries which achieved formal political independence from Britain (and from other Western European powers such as Spain, France, Portugal, Holland, Belgium, and Germany) from the mid-twentieth century onwards. In our own understanding post colonialism is an era in which colonized states were regaining their traditions, culture in a form of a rejecting colonialism ( LOCAL INTERPRETATION Ke nako e leng gore merafe ee neng e busiwa ke mafatshe a mmamosidanyana a leka go ipatela ditsela tse se ele tsa go dira dilo tse dingwe, ka mantswe a mangw e e kgathanong le puso ya mafatshe a Bophira e go neng go diriwa dilo ka tsela ya bone. Sekai e kanna tiriso ya sekgowa mo dilong ka go farologana, jaaka mo go kwaleng dibuka mme motho entse e le Motswana kgotsa moAferika. HISTORY OF POST COLONIALISM Colonialism: With reference to ( Rohmann, 1999): The term colonialism refers to the state of being a colony. It is derived from the Latin colonia: farm of settlement. It shares a common root with the word culture through Latin colere (past. Part. Cultum: meaning to grow). Colonialism refers to the practice by which a powerful country controls another country or other countries. This is achieved by means of a military, economic, cultural oppression or domination of one country over another. Colonialism aims at controlling not only the people’s wealth (what they produced, how they produced it, and how it was distributed) in order to control the entire realm of real life’s language; but it aims also at dominating the colonized country through out imposing the dominance of their mental universe. In other words, it is a control through culture, of how people perceived themselves and their relationship to the world: to control a people’s culture is to control its tools of self-definition in relationship to others. For colonialism this control involves tow aspects of the same process: * The destruction or deliberate undervaluing of a people’s culture. * The domination of a people’s language by that of colonizing nation. NEO-COLONIALISM This is an era to new-style colonialism, and generally means the exercise of international power through economic and commercial rather than military means. POST COLONIALISM The critical nature of postcolonial theory entails destabilizing Western way of thinking, therefore creating space for the subaltern, or marginalized groups, to speak and produce alternatives to dominant discourse. Often, the term post colonialism is taken literally, to mean the period of time after colonialism. This however is problematic because the ‘once-colonized world’ is full of â€Å"contradictions, of half-finished processes, of confusions, of hybridity, and liminalities†. In other words, it is important to accept the lural nature of the word post colonialism, as it does not simply refer to the period after the colonial era. By some definitions, post colonialism can also be seen as a continuation of colonialism, albeit through different or new relationships concerning power and the control/production of knowledge. Due to these similarities, it is debated whether to hyphenate post colonialism as to symbolize that we have fully moved beyond colonialism ( Diesing, 1991). Post colonialism evolved having the following goals: The ultimate goal of post-colonialism is combating the residual effects of colonialism on cultures. It is not simply concerned with salvaging past worlds, but learning how the world can move beyond this period together, towards a place of mutual respect. This section surveys the thoughts of a number of post-colonialisms most prominent thinkers as to how to go about this. Post-colonialist thinkers recognize that many of the assumptions which underlay the logic of colonialism are still active forces today. Exposing and deconstructing the racist, imperialist nature of these assumptions, they will lose their power of persuasion and coercion. Recognizing that they are not simply airy substance but have widespread material consequences for the nature and scale of global inequality makes this project all the more urgent. A key goal of post-colonial theorists is clearing space for multiple voices. This is especially true of those voices that have been previously silenced by dominant ideologies subalterns. It is widely recognized within the discourse that this space must first be cleared within academia. Edward Said, in his canonical book,Orientalism provides a clear picture of the ways social scientists, specifically Orientalists, can disregard the views of those they actually study preferring instead to rely on the intellectual superiority of themselves and their peers. To the extent that Western scholars were aware of contemporary Orientals or Oriental movements of thought and culture, these were perceived either as silent shadows to be animated by the Orientalist, brought into reality by them or as a kind of cultural and international proletariat useful for the Orientalists grander interpretive activity (https://everything2. om/title/Postmodernism%252C+Poststructuralism%252C+Postcolonialism%252C+Deconstruction). PROPONENTS OF POST COLONIALISM Major contributors of post colonialism theory are as follows: Frantz Fanon: Fanon is one of the earliest writers associated with Post colonialism. He analyzed the nature of colonialism and those subjugated by it. He described colonialism as a source of violence, and offered a less bright and more violent prescription for moving beyond the colonial mindset. He argued that previously colonized peoples would remain hybrids with a miserably schizophrenic identity unless they revolt violently against their oppressors. Fanon’s important contribution to the struggle against colonialism is his concern with history. For him, the work of the struggle against colonialism involves the claiming back of their own history by the colonized from the negative or non-existent versions of it produced by the colonisers. He stressed the vital importance of the culture and representations of their past being central to the creation of both new positive forms of subject formation and new forms of social organisation which are necessary in the newly independent post-colonial era. He introduced also concepts of colonial space and ideas surrounding the role of the middle-class intelligentsia in these new nations; in order to develop new forms of social democracy rather than utilise existing colonial institutions and simply fill existing administrative positions with indigenous people. GAYATRI CHAKRAVORTY SPIVAK: Spivak’s main contribution to postcolonial theory came with her specific definition of the term subaltern. She also introduced terms such as essentialism and strategic essentialism. The former term refers to the dangers of reviving subaltern voices in ways that might simplify heterogeneous groups, creating stereotyped impressions of their diverse group. Spivak, however, believes that essentialism can sometimes be used strategically by these groups to make it easier for the subaltern to be heard and understood when a clear identity can be created and accepted by the majority. Spivak also introduced the term epistemic violence which refers to the destruction of the non-western ways of knowing and thereby the domination of western ways of understanding. She also criticized those who ignored â€Å"the cultural other† or subaltern. HOMI K. BHABHA: Bhabha introduced the idea that postcolonial world should valorise spaces of mixing, spaces where truth and authenticity move aside from ambiguity. He introduced also the concept of hybridity to capture the sense that many writers have of belonging to both cultures. For Homi Bhabha, hybridity occurs in postcolonial societies both: as a result of conscious movement of cultural suppression, as when the colonial power invades to consolidate political and economic control, or when settler-invaders dispose indigenous peoples and force them to â€Å"assimilate† to new social patterns. It may also occur in later periods when patterns of immigration from metropolitan societies and from other imperial areas of influence continue to produce complex cultural palimpsests with the post-colonial world ( Anderson, 1995). TENENTS OF POSTCOLONIALISM With reference to Wikipedia. om retrieved 1 may 2010, Post colonialism focuses on: * Race relations and the effects of racism and combating the residual effects of colonialism on cultures. In other words, it is not simply concerned with salvaging past worlds, but it aims also at learning how they can move beyond this period. * Illegitimating the idea of establishing power through conquest. * Building a nationa l identity. * Demonstrating the heterogeneity of colonized places. * Discussing issues of otherness, resistance, opposition, mimicry aiming at establishing values of human freedom, liberty, identity, and individuality. Celebrating their culture’s ancient yet transformed heritage, and at the same time integrating and mingling the cultural signs and practices of both the colonizing and the colonized cultures (hybridity). Postcolonial theory introduced also major key terms that are deemed to be the core of this theory which are: * Mimicry: refers to a sign of a double articulation, which appropriates the other as it visualizes power. It is also a sign of the inappropriate (mockery) to disrupt its authority. Hybridity: refers to the integration (mingling) of cultural signs and practices from the colonizing and the colonized cultures so that people adapt themselves to the necessities and opportunities of more or less oppressive or invasive cultural impositions. * The Third Space: refers to the non-synchronous temporality of global and national cultures that opens up a cultural space – a third space or in betweeness space- where the negotiation of differences creates a tension peculiar to the borderline existences. * Alterity: refers to the lack of identification with some part of one’s personality or one’s community. It also refers to the concept of otherness and differences. * Eurocentric: refers to the action of placing emphasis on European (western) concerns, culture and values at the expense of those of other cultures. It’s an instance of Ethnocentrism, perhaps especially relevant because of its alignment with current and past real power structures in the world. * Imperialism: refers to the policy of extending the control or authority over foreign entities as a means of acquisition and/or maintenance of empires through direct or indirect methods. Diaspora: refers to any people or ethnic population forced or induced to leave their traditional ethnic homelands, being dispersed throughout other parts of the world, and the developments in their dispersal and culture. * Otherness: the term otherness includes doubleness , both identity and difference. It considers the values and meanings of the colonizing culture but rejects its power. * Ethnicity: refers to those aspects of social relations hips and processes in which cultural difference is communicated. It is to be understood as the articulation of internal and external networks of exchange. The development of the term ethnicity in current postcolonial theory marks a shift from earlier discussions of race. Ethnicity recognises the social cultural and religious practices which help to constitute a cultural identity and is less reductive than the more physically based concept of race. * Identity formation: Colonialism left some social and cultural changes. As a result of these changes, the dominant question after independence is: what is the new cultural identity? APPLICATION TO SOCIAL WORK ASSESSMENT Throughout its process of addressing matters of identity, gender, race and ethnicity, Postcolonial theory encourages thought about the colonised’s creative resistance to the coloniser. This can be used in assessment to try and explain why people’s behaviour in all facets of life. REPORT WRITING Postcolonial theory introduced also some basic terms that are considered to be of a great help when analysing literary works. These key terms are as follow: * the colonizer vs. the colonized white western superiority vs. coloured colonial inferiority * black vs. white * slave vs. master * East vs. West SOCIAL ACTION The critical nature of postcolonial theory entails destabilizing Western way of thinking, therefore creating space for the subaltern or marginalized groups, to speak and produce alternatives to dominant discourse. Other areas where this theory can be applied are: in social policy and when devising intervention strategies. EXPLAN ATORY FUNCTION This theory focuses on the era were colonialism is rejected. People are encouraged to expose their own ways of doing things. They are no longer subjected to other people’s culture. They are no longer ruled by outsiders; they have their leaders amongst them who preserve their culture. CHANGE FUNCTION It seeks to promote self reliance amongst people, that is, they don’t have to rely on other people from a different culture to dominate in their society. It also discourages discrimination and cultural minority as every society has to be understood and let to implement their own ways of doing things. POST STRUCTURAL THEORY Post-Structuralism is an eclectic school of thought that significantly influenced literary and cultural theory in the 1970s and 1980s ( Rohmann, 1999). Post-structuralism is a modern philosophical school of thought. It grew out of, and in response to, the philosophy of structuralism, which many of the key thinkers of post-structuralism were extremely critical of. Post structuralism is one of the major driving forces in philosophy today, and is intricately connected with postmodernist thought. HISTORY Post? tructuralism, a school of thought that emerged partly from within French structuralism in the 1960s, reacting against structuralist pretensions to scientific objectivity and comprehensiveness. The term covers the philosophical deconstruction practised by Jacques Derrida and his followers, along with the later works of the critic Roland Barthes, the psychoanalytic theories of Jacques Lacan and Julia Kristeva, the historical critiques of Michel Foucault, and th e cultural? political writings of Jean? Francois Lyotard and Gilles Deleuze. These thinkers emphasized the instability of meanings and of intellectual categories (including that of the human ‘subject’), and sought to undermine any theoretical system that claimed to have universal validity, such claims being denounced as ‘totalitarian’. They set out to dissolve the fixed dual oppositions of structuralist thought, including that between language and meta language, and thus between literature and criticism. Instead they favoured a non? hierarchical plurality or ‘free play’ of meanings, stressing the indeterminacy of texts. Although diminishing in French intellectual life by the end of the 1970s, post? structuralisms delayed influence upon literary and cultural theory in the English? speaking world has persisted (Sarup, 1988). PROPONENTS OF POST STRUCTURALISM MICHEL FOUCALT Originally labelled a structuralist, the French philosopher and historian Michel Foucault came to be seen as the most important representative of the post-structuralist movement. He agreed that language and society were shaped by rule governed systems, but he disagreed with the structuralists on two counts. Firstly, he did not think that there were definite underlying structures that could explain the human condition and secondly he thought that it was impossible to step outside of discourse and survey the situation objectively Foucault attempted to analyse the discursive practices or serious speech acts that lay claim to revealing knowledge. Rather than analyse these discursive practices in terms of their truth, he analyses them in terms of their history or genesis. He claimed that he was attempting to do an archaeology of knowledge, to show the history of truth claims. In his latter work, he borrowed from Nietzsche the genealogical approach and from Marx his analyses of ideology. Foucault sought to show how the development of knowledge was intertwined with the mechanisms of (political) power. Unlike Marx, Foucault had no underlying belief in a deep underlying truth or structure: there was no objective viewpoint from which one could analyse discourse or society. Foucault focused on the way that knowledge and the increase of the power of the state over the individual has developed in the modern era. In his History of Sexuality he argued that the rise of medical and psychiatric science has created a discourse of sexuality as deep, instinctual and mysterious. This discourse became accepted as the dominant explanation, and its assumptions began to seep into the discourse of the everyday. In this way the human subjectss experience of their own sexuality is shaped and controlled by the discourses that purport to explain it. The search for knowledge does not simply uncover pre-existing objects; it actively shapes and creates them. Foucault does not offer any all-embracing theory of human nature. He was critical of meta-theory: beliefs that claimed to give an exclusive objective explanation of reality. For Foucault there is no ultimate answer waiting to be uncovered. The discursive practices of knowledge are not independent of the objects that are studied, and must be understood in their social and political context. Jacques Derrida (1930- ) developed deconstruction as a technique for uncovering the multiple interpretations of texts. Influenced by Heidegger and Nietzsche, Derrida suggests that all text has ambiguity and because of this the possibility of a final and complete interpretation is impossible. Derrida presented a thesis on an apparent rupture in intellectual life. Derrida interpreted this event as a decentering of the former intellectual cosmos. Instead of progress or divergence from an identified centre, Derrida described this event as a kind of play (https://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Post-structuralism) TENENTS OF POST STRUCTURALISM LANGUAGE Levi-Strauss diagrammed everything from food taboos to kinship relations in an attempt to discover the deep structures within them. Meanwhile, in linguistics, Noam Chomsky talked about hardwired grammars that could give rise to all the varied languages of the world. Levi-Strauss, Chomsky, and their followers believed that the dizzying variety of human phenomena could all be reduced to certain simple axioms. Post structuralism casts doubt on the existence of these structures. Instead of diagrams and charts, poststructuralists inject chance and play and illogic into their writing. They value illusion, imagination, and surprise over traditional ideas of chronological development or even narrative sense. This is true both of academic work, which throws out the chilly third-person analytic voice in favour of unapologetically subjective and situated writing, and of fiction, which suspends predictable elements of stories like temporal continuity and neatly resolved endings in favour of confusion and uncertainty. The best poststructuralist writing can be delirious, hallucinatory, poetic, and beautiful. Like religious writing with which it has a lot in common it can come around to deep truths obliquely, by talking around them rather than attempting to capture them with the detached language of the scientist. Deconstruction For Derrida, language or texts are not a natural reflection of the world. Text structures are interpretation of the world. Following Heidegger, Derrida thinks that language shapes us: texts create a clearing that we understand as reality. Derrida sees the history of western thought as based on opposition: good vs. evil mind vs. atter, man vs. woman, speech vs. writing. These oppositions are defined hierarchically: the second term is seen as a corruption of the first, the terms are not equal opposites. Derrida thought that all text contained a legacy of these assumptions, and as a result of this, these texts could be re-interpreted with an awareness of the hierarchies implicit in language. Derrida does not think that we can reach an end point of interpretation, a truth. For Derrida all text s exhibit difference: they allow multiple interpretations. Meaning is diffuse, not settled. Textuality always gives us a surplus of possibilities, yet we cannot stand outside of textuality in an attempt to find objectivity. One consequence of deconstruction is that certainty in textual analyses becomes impossible. There may be competing interpretations, but there is no uninterpreted way one could assess the validity of these competing interpretations. Rather than basing our philosophical understanding on undeniable truths, the deconstructionist turns the settled bedrock of rationalism into the shifting sands of a multiplicity of interpretations (https://www. hilosopher. org. uk/poststru. httm). APPLICATION TO SOCIAL WORK RESEARCH Recently, post-structuralism has influenced social work research and practice by challenging universal ideas and opposing grand theory based on the assumption of underlying structures and truths. Difference between theories Post-structuralism is importantly different from postmodernism, although the two are often considered one and the same by the general subject. Although there are certain areas of overlap, thinkers from one school almost never identify themselves with the other school of thought. Postmodernism importantly seeks to identify a contemporary state of the world, the period that is following the modernist period. Postmodernism seeks to identify a certain juncture, and to work within the new period. Post-structuralism, on the other hand, can be seen as a more explicitly critical view, aiming to deconstruct ideas of essentialism in various disciplines to allow for a more accurate discourse CONCLUSION Post colonialism critiques what it sees as the classist, Eurocentric assumptions behind scholarship. This has given rise to several branches of what is often called subaltern studies, which is to say the study of the silenced minority voices in colonized spaces Where postmodernism critiques modernity, post structuralism critiques structuralism, which is to say a constellation of anthropological and literary theories that claim that all human behaviour obeys certain scientific laws. REFERENCE Rohmann. C, (2000), A world of ideas: A Dictionary of Important Theories, Concepts, Beliefs And Thinkers. New York, Ballantine Books. Diesing. P, (1991, How does Social Science Work? Reflection on Practice, United States Of America, University of Pittsburgh Press. Hollinger. R, (1994), Postmodernism and the Social Science; A thematic approach vol 4. London, SAGE Publications. Anderson. W. T, ed. (1995), The Truth about the Truth: De-confusing and Re-constructing the Postmodern World. New York, A New Consciousness Reader. Payne. M (2005), Modern Social Work Theory. New York, Palgrave Macmillan. Macionis, JJ, Plummer, K. (1997. ). Introduction to Sociological Concepts. Prentice Hall. Europe Sarup, M. (1988). An Introductory Guide to Post? Structuralism and Postmodernism. New York. Palgrave. https://everything2. com/title/Postmodernism%252C+Poststructuralism%252C+Postcolonialism%252C+Deconstruction https://books. google. com/books? id=9MSBQcsVwvUCpg=PA472dq=postcolonialism+soviet+unionlr=sig=pBmbkyZVXrZwVkHMZZ8FG_Q4yjc. https://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Post-structuralism https://www. as. ua. edu/ant/Faculty/murphy/436/pomo. htm https://www. philosopher. org. uk/poststr. htm

Julius Caesar - Tragic Hero Essay - 1028 Words

Julius Caesar as a Tragic Hero amp;#9;Julius Caesar is a play written by William Shakespeare during the year 1597. Julius Caesar’s story involves a conspiracy against Julius Caesar, a powerful senator. The play involves a highly respected senator, Brutus, who decides to join the conspiracy to kill Julius Caesar, in the effort to keep democracy intact. Brutus believes that if Julius Caesar is allowed to live, Caesar will take a kingship and turn the government into a monarchy. Brutus, Cassius, and the other conspirators kill Julius Caesar, yet they find Antony, a loyalist of Caesar, seeks revenge on them. Plato set out rules on the traits a tragic hero must possess. A tragic hero must neither be an evil villain nor a great hero,†¦show more content†¦Caesar’s pride is shown by his response, amp;quot;Caesar. †¦Danger knows full well that Caesar is more dangerous than he. We are two lions littered in one day, And I the elder and more terrible, And Caesar shall go forth.amp;quot;(2,2,44-47) Caesar shows that his pride overrules any advice given by others. If not for Julius Caesar’s pride, he may have avoided the assassination and had more time for the conspir acy to be uncovered. This clearly shows that Caesar’s pride is a hamartia that leads to his downfall. amp;#9;Julius Caesar vacillates, or changes, his mind throughout the play and this downfall is shown to be one of Caesar’s hamartias. On the day Caesar is to go to the Capitol, he changes his decisions frequently. Caesar defies the warnings of Calpurnia and the priests and Caesar says that she, Caesar, shall go forth to the Capitol this day. amp;quot;Caesar. Caesar shall forth. The things that threatened me Ne’er looked but on my back. When they shall see The face of Caesar, they are vanished.amp;quot; Through this quotation, it seems Caesar has made his mind to go forth to the Capitol. Calpurnia, though, is able to persuade him to stay home and send word that he is sick. Caesar replies, amp;quot;Caesar. Mark Antony shall say I am not well, And for thy humour I will stay at home.amp;quot;(2,2,55-56) Decius then flatters Caesar and is able to persuade him that Calpurnia’s nightmare is misinterpreted and that heShow MoreRelatedJulius Caesar : A Tragic Hero934 Words   |  4 PagesJulius Caesar is a work of art by William Shakespeare in 1599. Within this play Julius Caesar is portrayed as a tragic hero. A tragic hero is defined as â€Å"the main character of a tragedy [who is] usually dignified, courageous, and high ranking† (novel study guide). Also vital to defining a tragic hero is that, â€Å"the hero’s downfall is caused by a tragic flaw† ( novel study guide). It is very evident that Julius Caesar in William Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar is a tragic hero given that he is of nobleRead MoreJulius Caesar : A Tragic Hero863 Words   |  4 PagesJulius Caesar is a well known piece of literature written by William Shakespeare in 1599. Within this play Julius Caesar is portrayed as a tragic hero. A tragic hero is defined as â€Å"the main character of a tragedy (who is) usually dignified, courageous, and high ranking† (Novel Study Guide). Also vital to defining a tragic hero is that, â€Å"the hero’s do wnfall is caused by a tragic flaw† (Novel Study Guide). It is evident that Julius Caesar in William Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar is a tragic hero givenRead MoreJulius Caesar : A Tragic Hero1171 Words   |  5 PagesJulius Caesar Julius Caesar, the greatest war hero and most noble of all wanted to be praised by all Roman citizens wanted to achieve power to rule as a king. The play is set in ancient Rome in the year 44 B.C. when the Roman general Julius Caesar was almost ruler of the entire world at the highest point in his career. Within this play Julius Caesar is portrayed as a tragic hero. A tragic hero is defined as â€Å"the main character of a tragedy [who is] usually dignified, courageous, and high ranking†Read MoreJulius Caesar : A Tragic Hero937 Words   |  4 Pages Caesar the Great Julius Caesar is a work of art by William Shakespeare in 1599. Within this play Julius Caesar is portrayed as a tragic hero. A tragic hero is defined as â€Å"the main character of a tragedy [who is] usually dignified, courageous, and high ranking† (novel study guide). Also vital to defining a tragic hero is that, â€Å"the hero’s downfall is caused by a tragic flaw† ( novel study guide). It is very evident that Julius Caesar in William Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar is a tragic hero givenRead MoreJulius Caesar : A Tragic Hero849 Words   |  4 PagesThe Tragedy of Julius Caesar by William Shakespeare is the story of ancient Rome during the time that Caesar took over. Caesar returns to Rome, after defeating the former leader, Pompey. Cassius and other conspirators convince Brutus, a nobleman, to join in on their plot against Caesar. Brutus and the others gather around Caesar, on the ides of March, to stab him. They stabbed Caesar 23 times and eventually he d ies. Brutus takes over Rome, but followers of Caesar, Antony and Octavius, oppose BrutusRead MoreTragic Hero In Julius Caesar829 Words   |  4 Pages What is a tragic hero? A tragic hero is a person, of noble birth, with heroic potential but doomed by fate. The hero struggles against his fate but eventually fails because of a mistake or even a flaw. In Shakespeare’s play, The Tragedy of Julius Caesar, a character may come to mind and fit this definition, Marcus Brutus. In this play, Julius Caesar’s ambition for power drove the honorable Brutus to think negatively about Caesar’s position of being the king of Rome. The honorable Brutus shows hisRead MoreThe Tragic Hero Of Julius Caesar1793 Words   |  8 PagesAs Caesar dies, he gasps, â€Å"Et tu, Brute?† (III. i. 77). To betray a close friend for the better of the country only to have it end all in vain is a tragedy in its own. For Brutus, this is his journey in Shakespeare’s play The Tragedy of Julius Caesar. Although the play is named after Caesar, it is evident that Brutus is the tragic hero as the audience watches the events of the play unfold. Brutus’s characteristics and actions line up perfectly with Aristotle’s definition of a tragic hero which statesRead MoreJulius Caesar the True Tragic Hero1526 Words   |  7 Pagesonce said â€Å"A man doesn’t become a hero until he can see the root of his own downfall.† These words best describe what a â€Å"Tragic Hero† is and both Julius Caesar and Brutus displayed this characteristic, so the question is â€Å"Who is the real tragic hero in this story?† This paper shall explore the reasons behind why each man is considered a hero in his own right and who the rightful owner to the title of the play truly belongs to. There have been countless tragic heroes in the works of William ShakespeareRead MoreJulius Caesar: The Quintessence of a Tragic Hero1156 Words   |  5 PagesShakespeare’s The Tragedy of Julius Caesar is the illustration of the demise of many respectable men. Typical of a tragedy, one character of high social standing experiences numerous downfalls brought on by a character flaw. This character is eventually brought to his or her knees by the misery and sorrow brought upon by these mistakes. It is at this point that the character realizes their flaws and changes their outlook. In Shakespeare’s tragedy, the tragic hero is Julius Caesar. In the play, ShakespeareRead MoreExamples Of Tragic Hero In Julius Caesar905 Words   |  4 Pagesman cannot become a hero until he can see the root of his own downfall.† By Shakespearean definition, a tragic hero is someone of high position such as a nobleman, who has hamartia, a tragic flaw that leads to his downfall, and even his demise. This is strongly illustrated in Julius Caesar by William Shakespeare, where Marcus Brutus’ desire to remain noble and honourable leads him to naivety and self destruction. The plot of the play revolves around removing power from Caesar, causing the inability

Looking At Death Through Antig Essay Research free essay sample

Looking At Death Through Antig Essay, Research Paper Looking at Death through Antigone s Eyes- Obey the Gods or the King In Sophocles drama, Antigone, the chief character Antigone is faced with a atrocious calamity ; her two brothers have merely died contending each other and now one of her brothers, Polyneices, is non given proper burial rights by the male monarch, Creon. In Grecian times, when a adult male dies there is a great trade of regard and congratulations given, and a proper entombment is ever necessary to back up the way to the hereafter. When Antigone hears about this deficiency of regard for her brother, we see her side come out. She disobeys the male monarch and in secret buries her brother, interrupting the Torahs of the polis. Why did she interrupt the metropolis s Torahs? In analyzing decease through Antigone s eyes, it becomes evident as to why she broke the Torahs set by Creon to go forth Polyneices unburied. This scrutiny will turn out that obeying the Torahs of adult male is secondary to obeying the Torahs of the Gods, and that Antigone is really passionate in her positions about decease. In order to explicate Antigone s feelings about decease, allow us foremost travel over what the whole drama, Antigone, is approximately. The narrative takes topographic point in Thebes, and Antigone is the girl of Oedipus and Jocasta ( who are non really in the drama ) . One of Antigone s brothers, Polyneices, left Thebes and went to Argos, because when Oedipus died the two brothers, Polyneices and Eteocles, were excessively immature to govern so they alternated old ages of opinion. At Argos, Polyneices gathered an ground forces to assail Thebes so that he could go the lone swayer of Thebes. During his onslaught, he gets involved in a battle with his brother where they both kill each other. The new male monarch after their deceases, Creon, does non desire to give Polyneices a proper entombment because of his perfidy against the polis, which Creon believes is the most of import thing of all. Creon is a really austere, important swayer who tries to exert his power every bit frequently as he can. So, these Torahs that he makes are concluding, and there is nil Antigone can make to convert him to make what the Gods would desire, which is give Polyneices a proper entombment. Antigone is really disquieted by this failure by Creon to bury her brother, so she in secret goes and buries him against the orders of the male monarch. Once Creon finds out she is the perpetrator, he vows to hold her killed for her lese majesty, even though Antigone is the bride of Creon s boy, Haemon. He is so disquieted with Antigone that he goes to any degree that he has to in order to turn out that he is the 1 in charge, and that cipher can acquire away with intentionally disobeying him. This dissension between Creon and Antigone shows throughout the whole drama, and this leads to the disclosure of how Antigone sees and feels about decease. When Antigone finds out about her brother non buried decently, her foremost thought about his decease is utmost sorrow. She is a follower of the regulations of the Gods, and for him to be unburied is a immense job. If a adult male is unburied, the spirit can non traverse over to the otherworld, and they can non imbibe from the river that will do them bury the yesteryear. The spirit will so come back and stalk its kinsmen until buried decently. She weeps continuously to her sister, Ismene, about how this sort of day of reckoning could go on to a loved 1. She is besides the girl of Oedipus, so she has experience with atrocious deceases in her household. She can non stand that Creon is making this, and a feeling of responsibility comes to her head ( which will be talked about subsequently ) . This initial feeling of sorrow that she has is what we would see from any individual today if a household member had died and left unwept. However, we see that these feelings become more serious af ter her initial response, and now she has developed much more passionate positions about the decease of Polyneices, and about decease in general. Antigone believes that decease is sacred and that every adult male deserves to be mourned suitably. From the sorrow, she realizes that if she does non bury her brother decently, she will neer be able to forgive herself. This sparks her to in secret bury him, and creates the plotline for the remainder of the drama. The following feeling about decease that Antigone has is that it is a expletive on her and her household. She thinks about Polyneices s decease, and it sparks up ideas about the history of her whole household. Her male parent, Oedipus, had died with a atrocious repute and hated by most people in Thebes. Her female parent, Jocasta, killed herself in the aftermath of Oedipus s destiny and her two brothers died on the same twenty-four hours. That has to be some sort of evil destiny. This theory makes sense in Grecian civilization because every adult male is supposed to hold his ain prophet and way set for him. This way is destiny, unchangeable. Well, seeing the history of her household s destinies, we can see how Antigone sees decease as a expletive that she will ever hold to cover with. In happening out of Creon s Torahs that Polyneices can non be buried, Antigone feels a sense of responsibility to bury him decently. This causes her to interrupt the Torahs of the polis in order to make what is right for Polyneices. What she is making is right in the Gods eyes, and that is much more of import to her than Creon s Torahs. She does non believe that Creon, merely one adult male, should be able to make over the Torahs that the Gods set in the beginning. We see this trueness to the Gods and to her household when Antigone is captured for B urying Polyneices. As the guards go to hotfoot her, she does non even flinch. This is because she believes that this is what the Gods would desire. She is taken into the castle where Creon accuses her of the offense against the metropolis. He is outraged, ready to penalize her with decease, and Antigone stands up to the whole thing. She is so speedy to take the incrimination, no affair what the effects are, because at least she would hold given Polyneices proper burial. Death should be treated the same manner for any individual, whether or non that individual died contending for the state ( Eteocles ) , or died contending against their state ( Polyneices ) . She believes she has done no offense, she merely has done her responsibility for her household, and what would be right to the Gods. Antigone states when she is confronted by Creon, What greater glorification could I win than to give my ain brother proper entombment? ( 84 ) She will decease to make what is right for Polyneices an d to the Gods, and her admitting to the offense shows how passionate she truly does experience. This sense of responsibility brings up another of her positions about decease, glorification. Antigone develops feelings of glorification and award when she thinks about her ain decease. Antigone has broken the metropolis Torahs, sentenced to decease. However, in the aftermath of her sentence, alternatively of seeking to avoid the inevitable, she approaches her ain decease with glorification and prestigiousness. She expresses that her death would be deserving it every bit long as she was able to mourn Polyneices right. In add-on, she has been through so much hurting and sorrow so far in her life that to decease before anything worse happens would be a addition. Furthermore, Antigone approaches her ain decease with an unfastened head because when she does go through away she will be reunited with all of her household that has already died. She shows so much award in the aftermath of decease that even though she has gone through so much torment, and has cipher to mourn her ain decease ( which is her ultimate fright ) , she still believes it was deserving it to honour her brothe r and the Gods. She poetically provinces, No 1 to cry for me- they take me off in all my hurting But now, Polyneices, because I laid your organic structure out every bit good, this, this is my wages. ( 104 ) Antigone gave her ain life to function Polyneices, and her bravery that she showed in the eyes of decease is equal to that of a hero. Antigone shows more glorification and award in her ain decease because she did non desire anyone else to endure for her interrupting the Torahs of the metropolis. When she is captured, Ismene comes to take some of the incrimination for the entombment of Polyneices in support of her sister. However, Antigone would non let it because she did non desire decease to take another one of her household. She would instead take duplicate the incrimination so that Ismene can hold a hereafter. She states to Ismene, Save yourself. I don t score you your survival Live your life. I gave myself to decease long ago, so I might function the dead. ( 88 ) Antigone Acts of the Apostless like a motherly figure about decease, she would instead hold the hurting inflicted on herself instead than anyone else that she loves. Even though Antigone shows award and pride in her ain decease, she besides shows that she is sad and down. She realizes that her life was filled with so many atrocious things. She cries about the atrocious destinies of her household, and about how she has cipher who will be mourning her decease merely as she had done for her household. At the same clip, she does non cognize what to anticipate, except that her household will be at that place waiting to recognize her. She thinks that she is a alien in her ain place, because she is the lone one brave sufficiency to oppugn the male monarch s Torahs. This brief fright about decease that Antigone has is non characteristic of her, and it seemed that she had changed in to a wholly different individual when she has those ideas. Through all of the feuding that this drama had in respects to positions on decease, it is evident that Antigone s positions did learn Creon something. Ironically, right after Antigone and Haemon had taken their ain lives, Creon has an epiphany where he decides to hold Polyneices buried decently and Antigone s life spared. He does this because he finds out that the metropolis of Thebes agrees with Antigone, and that they are really disquieted with what Creon has done. Unfortunately, as in most Grecian calamities, it was excessively late to save Antigone s life ( because she had already taken her ain ) . It turns out that after her decease, Creon was much worse off than when she was alive. Nevertheless, Antigone s positions did learn Creon that the Torahs of the Gods will ever be much more of import and have much higher value than any jurisprudence of adult male. He now knows, as Antigone tried to state him throughout the drama, that mourning a adult male s decease, no affair who that adult male is, is necessary in order to maintain nature in order in the polis and avoid farther penalty from the Gods. In analyzing Antigone s positions on decease, it is evident why she went to such great lengths to bury Polyneices decently. She showed that her positions about decease are the traditional 1s that the Gods created far before she was of all time born, and those can neer be tampered with or changed. She is so strong willed and passionate about these positions that any adult male would woolgather to hold a lovingness, supportive individual like her to be at that place for them in a clip of demand. If merely Creon had listened to Antigone before, but so you would non be able to name the drama, Antigone, a true Grecian calamity.

Protestant Reformation and the Western church

Protestant reformation was a religious movement that commenced in the 16th century in Western Europe.1This movement was meant to bring about an internal renewal in the church. Consequently, it led to numerous revolts and abandonment of Christian doctrines. Notably, this movement was initiated by John Calvin, Martin Luther and other protestant activists who were largely described as reformers.2Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Protestant Reformation and the Western church specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Needless to say, the activists anticipated to re-structure the Roman Catholic Church’s doctrines. Eventually, this precipitated to the formation of protestant groups. Consequently, the protestant reformation initiated a permanent schism in the western church. Certainly, there were myriads of reasons and objectives behind the movement. Moreover, numerous methods and strategies were used to bring abou t reforms in Western Europe. As a result, certain consequences were experienced in numerous regions in Europe. It is against this backdrop that this paper intends to analyze why protestant reformation began and examines how it led to the emergence of permanent schism in the Western church. From a careful review of literature, it is apparent that the causes of protestant reformation can be traced back in 14th century.3 During this time, religious doctrines remained pure and uninterrupted in all the regions in Europe. Nevertheless, medieval institutions began to emerge and numerous works of education proliferated. During the same period, religious art had a living force and became so influential through domestic missionaries. People in Europe adopted and embraced the edifying literature of religion. Nevertheless, the spirit of civil influence rose with heightened desire for new order in the society. In this case, the desire to spread civilization in Europe was accompanied by social an d political conditions that deterred the church’s activities.4 In line with this, dissatisfaction in the church became so rampant in European society that it hampered smooth operations.Advertising Looking for research paper on religion theology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More For instance, intellectuals criticized the church for its intense emphasis on unhelpful rituals in the pretext of salvation. In this case, the intellectual curiosity triggered the shift of religious beliefs from a holistic approach to a personalized level. One of the major rituals that sparked the reformation agenda was the issue of sacrament which most people did not value much. Most people discussed the issue and highly criticized it, a factor that triggered the desire to reform some of the ritual practices in the Catholic Church. In addition, there was the issue of papacy that had lost much of the spiritual significance to the people due to it s intense secularization in Europe.5 Needless to say, people had been perceiving popes and bishops as spiritual Godfathers. In this case, only those people who were recognized were given wealth and this caused resentment among the poor masses. Moreover, the popes and bishops were able to buy and sell high positions in their various offices. In line with this, they also sold indulgences, a factor that created leeway of abusing their positions in church.6 From a careful review of literature, it is evident that even the clergy became corrupt, immoral and lax. Since people kept close watch of the unfolding events, they ended up distrusting and disliking the clergy. This advanced the argument that even lay men were better than the clergies.7 Needless to say, this sparked off personal and social conflicts. Moreover, the church laws became dogmatic on the issues of sacrament and purgatory. In any case, the dogmatic theology emphasized that salvation could be achieved through asceticism, fa sting and abstinence. This was central and one of the most important expectations of the people since the priests did not practice celibacy as expected. It also compelled people to seek personal, spiritual and immediate form of religion since the rituals meant very little to them. It is imperative to note that quite a number of regions in Western Europe experienced immorality, superstitious beliefs and religious indifferences, a factor that increased the need to discern and reform the church.8 It is definite that these were adequate reasons for desiring religious reformation.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Protestant Reformation and the Western church specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More It is imperative to note that both the emergence of renaissance and humanism greatly sparked off reformations. For instance, people loved luxury which they associated with art and literature. Therefore, higher intellectual culture and the Graeco-Roman paganism reduced the importance of religious ideas. Notably, paganism became common due to materialism lifestyle embraced by high-class society.9 Moreover, intellectuals were occupied by love and pleasure for wealth which they gained contrary to the Christian morality. Moreover, during the mid 15th to 16th century, the printing technology widely spread in Europe. This facilitated widespread flow of information and ideas on paganism. Notably, people had already lost confidence in the church’s doctrines and they opted to set individualized lifestyles. In addition, the scholasticism spirit increased the quest to examine impending superstitions and religious beliefs.10 Scholars highly opposed ecclesiastic malpractices since they had already doubted the legitimacy of clergies, indulgencies, simony and papacy.11It is important to note that the leading activists had common ideologies which they spread through print media. Nevertheless, their followers h ad divided motives and ideologies that eventually turned into conflict. Therefore, one can argue that differences among the reformers such as John Calvin, Luther and Zwingli led to rise of another religious schism in Europe. Notably, numerous theological disputes heightened the schism in Western church and this led to emergence of numerous denominations such as Eastern Orthodox, Protestantism, Anglican and Roman Catholics. From a careful review of literature, one can argue that schism came about due to extended periods of conflict and tension over the authority of western papacy.12 Moreover, differences in liturgical practices and jurisdiction roles were major factors that led to schism in churches. Needless to say, consequent schisms have been witnessed in Western Europe and as such, illustrate the church’s inability to live up its commands as written in the Bible. Research has revealed that tragic divisions have emerged in churches causing prolonged hatred and the reconcili ation measures being put in place are not fruitful at all.13Advertising Looking for research paper on religion theology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More From this argument, it is definite that schism was a common and a permanent aspect in Western Church. Moreover, it has continued to widen since there are numerous number of protestant churches that emerge daily. Therefore, it is certain that religious diversity in Europe was an important factor in protestant reformation. To reiterate on the above, it is vital to mention that protestant reformation was a religious movement in the 16th century that aimed at reforming the Catholic Church in Western Europe. Notably, there were numerous factors that precipitated the rise and spread of the movement in Europe. These factors included the aspect of papacy, simony, celibacy, selling of indulgences and the purgatory practices. It is important to note that numerous religious doctrines and beliefs in the Catholic Church were dissatisfying and this raised concern among activists who were willing to reform the church. With the rise of humanism and scholastic fever, several people abandoned religio us beliefs and pursued their personal lives. Needless to say, activists such as Luther, John Calvin and Zwingli made significant efforts to reform the church. Nevertheless, their followers had dividend motives on numerous aspects such as papacy, liturgical and judicial roles in the church. These divisions resulted into schisms in the Western Church. Though numerous measures have been put in place to bring reconciliation, religious diversity has continued to become a major feature in Western Europe. In this case, it is evident that protestant reformation is the major cause of schism in the Western Church. Bibliography Ballor, Jordan. â€Å"Natural Law and Protestantism-A Review Essay.† Christian Scholar’s Review 41, no. 2(2012): 193-209. Chadwick, Henry. East and West The Making of a Rift in the Church: from Apostolic Times Until the Council of Florence. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003. Spalding, Martin. The History of the Protestant Reformation; In Germany and Sw itzerland, and in England, Ireland, Scotland, the Netherlands, France, and Northern. New York: General Books LLC., 2010. Spitz, Lewis. The Protestant Reformation: Major Documents. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1997. Footnotes 1Martin Spalding, The History of the Protestant Reformation; In Germany and Switzerland, and in England, Ireland, Scotland, the Netherlands, France, and Northern. (New York: General Books LLC., 2010), 72. 2 Ibid. 3Lewis Spitz, The Protestant Reformation: Major Documents. (St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1997), 63. 4 Ibid. p.39 5 Henry Chadwick, East and West The Making of a Rift in the Church: from Apostolic Times Until the Council of Florence. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), 43. 6 Lewis Spitz, The Protestant Reformation: Major Documents. (St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1997), 67. 7 Ibid. 8 Chadwick, Henry. East and West The Making of a Rift in the Church: from Apostolic Times Until the Council of Florence. Oxford: Oxford Univer sity Press, 2003. 9Jordan Ballor, â€Å"Natural Law and Protestantism-A Review Essay.† Christian Scholar’s Review 41, no. 2(2012): 195. 10 Spalding, Martin. The History of the Protestant Reformation; In Germany and Switzerland, and in England, Ireland, Scotland, the Netherlands, France, and Northern. New York: General Books LLC. (2010). 11 Ibid 12 Chadwick, Henry. East and West The Making of a Rift in the Church: from Apostolic Times Until the Council of Florence. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003. 13 Lewis Spitz, The Protestant Reformation: Major Documents. (St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1997), 45. This research paper on Protestant Reformation and the Western church was written and submitted by user Lilly Cunningham to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.